8. The Either-or Thinking [b]This is the so-called black-or-white fallacy. Essentially, it says "Either [b]you believe what I'm saying or you must believe exactly the opposite." Here [b]is an example of the black-or-white fallacy: [b]Since you don't believe that the earth is teetering on the edge of [b]destruction, you must believe that pollution and other adverse effects that [b]man has on the environment are of no concern whatsoever. [b]The argument above assumes that there are only two possible alternatives [b]open to us. There is no room for a middle ground. [b][b]9. The "All Things are Equal" Fallacy [b]This fallacy is committed when it is assumed, without justification, that [b]background conditions have remained the same at different times/locations. [b]In most instances, this is an unwarranted assumption for the simple reason [b]that things rarely remain the same over extended periods of time, and [b]things rarely remain the same from place to place. [b]The last Democrat winner of the New Hampshire primary won the general [b]election. This year, the winner of the New Hampshire primary will win the [b]general election. [b]The assumption operative in this argument is that nothing has changed since [b]the last primary. No evidence or justification is offered for this [b]assumption. [b][b]10. The Fallacy of Equivocation [b]The Fallacy of Equivocation occurs when a word or phrase that has more than [b]one meaning is employed in different meanings throughout the argument. [b][b]"Every society is, of course, repressive to some extent - as Sigmund Freud [b]pointed out, repression is the price we pay for civilization." (John P. [b]Roche- political columnist) [b]In this example, the word repression is used in two completely different [b]contexts. "Repression" in Freud's mind meant rerstricting sexual and [b]psychological desires. "Repression" in the second context does not mean [b]respression of individual desires, but government restriction of individual [b]liberties, such as that in a totalitarian state. [b]11. Non Sequitur [b]This means "does not follow," which is short for: the conclusion does not [b]follow from the premise. To say, "The house is white; therefore it must be [b]big" is an example. It may be a big house but there is no intrinsic [b]connection with its being white. [b][b]12. Argument ad populum [b]A group of kindergartners are studying a frog, trying to determine its [b]sex. "I wonder if it's a boy frog or a girl frog," says one student. "I [b]know how we can tell!" pipes up another. "All right, how?" asks the [b]teacher, resigned to the worst. Beams the child: "We can vote." [b][b]This is argumentum ad populum, the belief that truth can be determined by [b]more or less putting it to a vote. Democracy is a very nice thing, but it [b]doesn't determine truth. Polls are good for telling you what people think, [b]not whether those thoughts are correct. [b][b]Common Student Errors [b]We've graded essays from thousands of students and we see recurring errors [b]time and time again. The most common error on the Analysis of Argument [b]essay is "Splitting Hairs." [b]Splitting Hairs refers to trying to dissect errors that do no fall into the [b]categories listed here. Remember that all questions have SERIOUS errors. [b]The danger is that you could get distracted on a minor issue and miss the [b]serious errors that the E-rater and the grader want to see. [b]3c. Analysis of Argument: Template [b][b]TEMPLATE [b]As with the Issue essay, there is no single "correct," way to organize an [b]Argument essay. In our view, however, your essay should include [b]separate "introduction" and "conclusion" paragraphs, as well as at least [b]two "body" paragraphs in which you develop your critique of the stated [b]argument. The following template spells out this structure in more detail, [b]and each of the sample Analysis of Argument essays in this book follow this [b]basic pattern. [b]You do not have to adhere strictly to this format in order to write an [b]effective Argument essay. You may find that some other form works better [b]for you, especially for the body of your essay. Also, the numbers of [b]sentences indicated for each paragraph here are merely suggestions or [b]guidelines, not hard-and-fast rules. [b](Note: The transitional phrases used here are purposely simplistic; do not [b]simply "parrot" them word-for-word in your essay or adopt a mechanistic [b]fill-in the blank approach. If you do, your essay might appear stilted or [b]contrived.) [b][b]Introductory Paragraph (2-4 sentences) [b]Try to accomplish three goals in your introductory paragraph: [b] Briefly restate the argument. [b] Briefly trace the argument's line of reasoning. [b] Indicate the extent to which the argument is logically convincing. [b] If possible, sum up your arguments in one sentence (or two brief [b]sentences). [b]Here's a sample template for the first paragraph that accomplishes these [b]goals: [b][b]The author concludes that____________, because ________. The author's line [b]of reasoning is that ______________. This argument is unconvincing for [b]several reasons; it is____________ and it uses _____________. [b][b]First Body Paragraph (3-5 sentences) [b]In the first body paragraph your goal is to critique one of the following: [b] The reasoning of the argument [b] One of the premises of the argument [b] One of the assumptions of the argument [b]Here's a sample template for this paragraph that accomplishes this goal: [b]First of all, ____________________________ is based upon the questionable [b]assumption ________________________________. That _______________, [b]however, _________________. Moreover, ________________________. [b][b]Second Body Paragraph (3-4 sentences) [b]The purpose of the second paragraph is to address one of the following: [b] The reasoning of the argument [b] One of the premises of the argument [b] One of the assumptions of the argument [b][b]Here's a sample template for this paragraph that accomplishes this goal: [b]Secondly, the author assumes that_________________________. [b]However, __________________________. It seems equally reasonable to assume [b]that ____________________. [b][b]Third (and optional Fourth) Body Paragraph [b]In this paragraph your goal is to critique one of the following: [b] The reasoning of the argument [b] One of the premises of the argument [b] One of the assumptions of the argument [b]Here's a sample template for this paragraph that accomplishes this goal: [b][b]Finally, _______________________________________. The author fails to [b]consider __________________________________. For example, [b]__________________. Because the author's argument _________________. [b][b]Final Paragraph (2-3 sentences) [b]In the final paragraph your goals are to: [b] Summarize your critique of the argument [b] State the main point of your essay [b]The final paragraph is not the placer to introduce new arguments or issues. [b]Sample template: [b]In sum, I agree that______________________. However, ____________________; [b]on balance, _____________________. [b]3d. Analysis of Argument: Timing [b]How to write a 300-word essay in 30 minutes [b][b]Sample Essay: [b]The problem of poorly trained police officers that has plagued New York [b]City should become less serious in the future. The City has initiated [b]comprehensive guidelines that oblige police officers in multiculturalism [b]and proper ways to deal with the city's ethnic groups. [b]Explain how logically persuasive you find this argument. In discussing your [b]viewpoint, analyze the argument's line of reasoning and its use of [b]evidence. Also explain what, if anything, would make the argument more [b]valid and convincing or help you to better evaluate its conclusion. [b]Step 1: Dissect the issue/argument (2 minutes) [b]What is the topic and scope of the argument? [b]topic: the problem of poorly trained police officers [b]scope: a given solution, centering on mandatory classes [b][b]The argument's conclusion? [b]The problem of poorly trained police officers that has plagued New York [b]City should become a less serious in the future. [b][b]What's the evidence? [b]The City has initiated comprehensive guidelines that oblige police officers [b]in multiculturalism and proper ways to deal with the city's ethnic groups. [b]Arguments typically will be structured in one of two ways: [b]1) conclusion… because…. evidence [b]2) evidence…. therefore…. conclusion [b][b]Summarize the argument: [b]The problem of poor police officers will become less serious… [b](conclusion) [b]multiculturalism training [b](evidence) [b]How does the argument use its evidence? [b]It uses evidence of multiculturalism training as evidence to conclude that [b]future improvement is likely. [b][b]Step 2: Select the points you will make (5 minutes) [b]Does the argument make any assumptions? That is, are there gaps between [b]evidence and conclusion? [b]1. Multiculturalism training will improve the current situation [b]2. The present police force has poor training in multicultural issues [b]3. The current police officers in the field will go back for re-training. [b][b]Under what circumstances would these assumptions be valid? [b]1. Evidence making it clear that the present police officers have not [b]already had multicultural training. [b]2. Evidence showing that multicultural training makes better police [b]officers. [b]3. Evidence showing that untrained police officers will not be teaching in [b]the future. [b]Step 3: Organize (1 minute) [b][b]Use the pages [b][b]Sketch in the outline. [b]a. State a clear thesis for the essay. [b]b. Make each heading correspond to a paragraph. [b]c. Make sure that there are at least five paragraphs. [b]d. Make sure that each heading corresponds to a topic sentence. [b]e. Be sure that there is a beginning and ending paragraph, which tie the [b]essay together. [b][b]Step 4: Type your essay (20 minutes) [b]Write your paragraphs in the essay with great care. [b]a. Each paragraph should have a topic sentence, which relates to the [b]central idea of the entire essay. [b]b. Everything in each paragraph should support the idea in the topic [b]sentence of the paragraph in (4a) above. For each paragraph, state an idea [b]then give examples to support the idea or explain the idea completely. [b][b]Step 5: Proofread the essay (2 minutes) [b]Make sure your "key" words: transitional phrases, major points, examples, [b]are properly spelled so that the E-rater may identify them properly and [b]know that you have a well written essay.